The Path of Love Toward the Divine
Qamar-ul Huda
Boston College
Department of Theology
Chestnut Hill, MA 02467
This paper examines the way two prominent Sufi Muslim scholars
reasoned with the Qur'ân and the Prophet's sayings
(hadiths) to illustrate how an inner mystical spiritual path was
the nearest way toward the divine. Historically, scriptural reasoning in
the Islamic tradition has included a diverse group of disciplines
involved in bringing a deeper understanding of scripture to one's
existence and to better knowing of God. From legal scholars,
philosophers, grammarians, theologians, poets, to the Muslim mystics or
Sufis, each group has added their voice to the arena of scriptural
reasoning.
For too long in the field of Islamic studies, many scholars have
viewed the superficial dichotomy between the trained religious scholars
('ulamâ') versus the Sufis (mystics of Islam) as an
accepted model of religious authorities. Until recently, Sufis were
categorized under the title of popular religion which was based on
fixed, superstitious, misguided beliefs and practices influenced by
other religious traditions. It was suggested that those who practiced
these sûfî beliefs were illiterate, anarchistic, and
opponents to the religion of the literate clerics. Also, the masses that
took part in "popular religion" were not susceptible to historical
changes or capable of contributing intellectually to the tradition.
These outdated views are not pertinent to us at the moment, but it needs
to be stated that scholarly prejudices against Sufism prohibited any
real discovery of Sufis and of their contributions until recently.
Briefly, since the tenth century, Sufis were scholars of law,
philosophy, theology, literature, medicine, mathematics, and astronomy.
Prominent Sufis like 'Abu Bakr al-Shibli (d. 946) and al-Qusharyri
(d.1074) were important scholars and influential members in all of the
major Sunni legal schools (madhabs), and were major advisers to
statesmen on jurisprudence. It is widely known, too, that Sufi scholars
had developed their own ways of defining and transmitting spiritual
knowledge and authority, and simultaneously devised their own ways of
legitimization. Sufi scholars were not only accepted in mainstream Sunni
Islam but they were crucial in the intellectual growth and exuberance of
Islamic scholarship. To not acknowledge these voices in the past and
present is to ignore the plurality of authorities in Islam, and more
importantly the tremendous impact these Sufi authorities had on the
intelligentsia and popular religious practice. Two monumental Sufi
Muslim scholars who had a profound impact on Islam are Muhyiddin Ibn
'Arabî and Abu Hafs Umar al-Suhrawardî. This paper
investigates into the multiple perspectives in which Ibn 'Arabî
and al-Suhrawardî interpreted the Qur'ân and the Prophet's
sayings. With their different approaches to understanding scripture,
both scholars were able to bring a deeper and real knowledge of the self
and the divine.
Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi (1165-1240):
Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi known as, Shaikh al-Akbar "The Grand
Shaikh" is widely accepted as the one of the foremost thinkers in Sufi
Islam. As a southern Spanish Muslim who traveled extensively from North
Africa, Syria, Egypt, and the Arabian Peninsula, he taught the principle
of Oneness of the divine and how each person is able to access and
subsist with the divine. For him, the true meaning comes of Oneness,
whichis a mystery, and the whole of his work can be described as a
ceaseless circumambulation around the Unknowable One, which lies beyond
all contrasting descriptions and manifestations.[1]
Ibn 'Arabî's theory of wahdat al-wujûd ("Oneness
of Being") is the absolute all-inclusive principle, encompassing all
beliefs and doctrines. The Arabic word wujûd also means
experience or finding, and therefore Being cannot be understood or
appreciated solely as an intellectual idea. It is the quest of life, to
be found and realized. The Oneness of Being that is expounded in Ibn
'Arabî's thought is not really doctrine or dogma, but lies at the
heart of the real nature of things. As life itself, it cannot be fitted
into any one body of belief or confined to any one description.[2]
The "Oneness of God" is fundamentally a matter of spiritual insight
and experience, which means a radical change in vision. Ibn
'Arabî inverts our normal way of seeing things, to bring us
closer to a different understanding. He poses a very interesting
question: "In reality, whose vision is it that is inverted?" He argues
that we usually believe that what we see is real, taking the appearance
of things, which is something we can imagine in our minds, removed from
the visible world, as real. Such "ultimate" reality may even be a
figment of our imagination, or so far removed from us that it does not
impinge on everyday life or might not exist.[3]
He stated that "The creation is intelligible and God the Real is
perceptible and visible, according to the people of faith and the people
of true insight and Experience." To Ibn 'Arabî, the only true
existence belongs to the One, and it is that One which is visible in all
manifestations. "Things" have no existence in themselves except as
places of manifestation or reflections of the expressions of primordial
Unity. Ibn 'Arabî asserted that those who have real insight
appreciate and are imbued or intoxicated with all that is good and true.
The inherent sweetness of existence is there for anyone who sees things
as they truly are or has belief in such vision. "Belief" is not an
intellectual appreciation nor a blind conviction, but belief is
something more heart-felt and intrinsic to being human.[4]
Another area of serious importance is how prayers are neither
devotional in any ordinary sense, nor are intended to be prayers for
communal recitation. They are meant to be more private and intimate
affairs, where the requests imply a high degree of understanding and
self-knowledge.[5] There is
precision and depth in their formulation, which is consecrated primarily
to the celebration of Union. Prayer is detailed exposition of spiritual
union, expressing the most intimate of converse with the divine beloved
- So one who prays is a true adorer. So the reciter and the one recited
to are understood to be two sides of the same reality.
Ibn 'Arabî believed what is recited is that which 'arrives in
the heart' (warid) and is 'received' by the adorer, on the one
hand, and the request that reaches the Real (al-Haqq) and is
responded to, on the other. For example, from the Qur'ân 55:29,
it states:
"Whosoever is in the heavens and the earth is in request of Him; every
day He is at work"
For Ibn 'Arabî, this Qur'ânic verse expresses a central
issue of all existence. At every moment each being, from the greatest
galaxy to the smallest particle, is requesting and receiving its
nourishment, physically and spiritually. Ibn 'Arabî responds to
this verse by stating:
"The Divine work is the request of those who ask.
There is not a single existent that is not requesting of Him,
The Exalted One, but they are according to different degrees in asking."
Divine labor consists in constantly fulfilling the requests of
created beings, from the highest to the lowest. Essentially, God's
response is as inherently necessary as the asking of the creature. Q
40:60 "Call upon Me and I shall answer you." God has promised to respond
to the constant request of the creatures, and this is in itself is a
request. Ibn 'Arabî explicitly states that "He (God) asks the
servants to call Him, while the servants ask to respond. Thus both are
asking and asked for (ṭâlib wa
maṭlûb)."[6]
Let us examine a few other Qur'ânic examples used by Ibn
'Arabî to argue the position that the Divine Reality is awaiting
the moment when His servants are enlightened and realize the ongoing and
open invitation by the divine. Some verses from the Qur'ân Ibn
'Arabî builds upon are:
"I am close, I respond to the call of the caller when he calls upon Me" 2:186
"I am closer to mankind than his jugular vein" 50:16
"Remember Me, and I shall remember You" 2:152
Ultimately in reality, according to Ibn 'Arabî, it is always
God Himself who is being asked for, since there is no other than He. But
there are different degrees of knowledge in the asking. Given that there
is always a divine response to our request, it is essential to become
conscious of what is actually being asked for. An intimate
moment-by-moment consciousness is knowing Divine closeness.
His prayers are theophanic in nature (the truest manifestation of the
divine to human beings) and the primary aim is to see things as they are
from the perspective of the Real. Prayers, according to Ibn
'Arabî are equally a form of invocation and a form of remembrance
(dhikr) of God. In reciting prayers, the servant is not indulging
in mere mechanical repetition of religious rituals, but consciously
acknowledging the Presence of God, opening up to the full force of the
Divine revelation and savoring its manifold tastes. This realization of
prayer becomes a mutual remembrance, as God says in the Qur'ân,
"Remember Me, and I shall remember You."
For Ibn 'Arabî this is a dialogue with the Unseen, a private
communion where only one side of the discourse can be visible. The
visible text of the prayers is only part of the conversation, and their
recitation is to be drawn into an intimate dialogue with God Himself,
invoking Him and being invoked, inviting Him and being invited. This is
a re-turning to Reality, a conversion that requires constant
reiteration.
Abû Hafs 'Umar al-Suhrawardî (1145-1234):
Shaikh Abû Hafs 'Umar al-Suhrawardî studied theology
from the prominent sufi teacher Shaikh 'Abdul Qâdir
Jilânî and was eventually initiated into sufism by his
uncle, Shaikh Abû Najîb al-Suhrawardî. Shaikh
al-Suhrawardî's best extant Sufi text, 'Awârif
al-Ma'ârif, "The Benefits of the Spiritually Learned," was
one of the more popular sufi books of his time and posthumously it
became the coffee table book for sufi novices.[7] One of the many reasons for its esteemed
reputation in the sufi world was that the manual attempted to reconcile
the practices of sufism with the observance of Islamic law. To later
generations of sufis and to a wide cross-section of sufi orders the book
became one of the most closely studied and memorized texts in the sufi
tradition.[8] Shaikh 'Umar
al-Suhrawardî, like many other distinguished sufi thinkers, tried
to bring about a deeper theological understanding in the sufi tradition
by analyzing the Qur'ân, the customs of the Prophetic tradition,
and the texts of past sufi shaikhs.
Al-Suhrawardî was a trained jurist (faqih) in the
Baghdadi Hanbalî legal tradition and specialized in law
(sharî'â), Qur'ânic exegesis
(tafsir), reasoning and ethics in tasawwuf, philosophy
(falsafa) and was a scholar on the life of Prophet Muhammad
(dirasât as-sunnâ wa ahadîth). As a student
of two prominent sufi teachers, Shaikhs 'Abdul Qadir
Jilânî and Abû Najîb al-Suhrawardî,
he was influenced by a pragmatic practice that asserted the supremacy of
obeying the law while bringing a rational interpretation of sufism. A
respected muḥaddith scholar (an authority in
hadith studies) with a background in jurisprudence (fiqh),
religious legal studies (sharî'â), philosophy
(falsafa) and the general field of sufi genealogy,
al-Suhrawardî was one of the intellectual giants of the scholars
of religious authority ('ulamâ). As a Hanbalî
jurist he followed the tradition of presenting evidence with passages of
the Qur'ân, citing evidence from the sunnâ and
hadiths, and sayings from past eminent sufi masters. In the year
1200, the 'Abbasid caliph al-Nasir (1179-1225) designated
al-Suhrawardî as Shaikh al-Islam, the prestigious position
that administered the religious affairs for the caliphal state, thereby
moving his ideas of sufi-state co-operation and his sufi order to the
forefront of Islamic religious politics.
Shaikh al-Suhrawardî asserted a conservative tone and spoke out
against his contemporaries, such as Ibn al-'Arabî (d.1165-1240), for
the excessive reliance on philosophical method as the main way of
theological reflection. He was a strong proponent of obeying the law
closely as well as all its related disciplines, mainly because a strict
observation of the law (sharî'â) was related to spiritual
ascension. For him, the sharî'â was more than a set of
divine legal codes to follow; it was rather a divine path that leads the
individual back to the creator. This opposition to philosophical and
mystical speculation as the primary sole path of contemplating on the
nature of the divine was due to the fear that an untrained person could
put forth an interpretation that was totally false to the tradition and
that interpretation could be misconstrued as authentic to sufi
teachings. Nevertheless, although shaikh al-Suhrawardî was tolerant
of all kinds of sufi beliefs and practices, he was interested primarily
in those who followed the particular Suhrawardîyya path of law and
sufism.
Shaikh al-Suhrawardî's Sufi texts contain an elaborate theory
on how all anti-sharî'â immoral activities emanated
from the lower self (nafs) and that only reason and patience
controlled its natural impulses such as rage and lust.[9] The desire for evil
(ammân), repentance (tawba) and satisfaction
(mutma'îna) represented three different stages in the
natural development and gradual purification of the nafs. To
shaikh al-Suhrawardî, the heart (qalb), while a part of
the body, was essentially a different organ of the body which went
beyond basic anatomical functions. For him the heart of a true believer
(mu'min) was analogous to a pure soul and being illuminated by a
shining light; but the heart of the unbeliever was dark and made of a
lowly substance. The heart of the hypocrite was shrouded in a veil, and
a many-faceted heart was one that was inclined towards both good and
evil. [10]
Shaikh al-Suhrawardî's ideas on reason were that it was an
innate human skill that prompted human beings to acquire different kinds
of knowledge. It was supplemented and supported by
sharî'â. Spiritual perception helped man to adopt
a middle of the road policy and obtain knowledge of the heavenly spheres
(malakût). Thus one could acquire an understanding of the
world of matter and space, as well as of the earthly world and the
Unseen. If reason was not supported and supplemented by the light of
Islamic sharî'â, human beings could prosper in the
world, but not obtain blessings from the spiritual world.
Only true sûfîs were able to discriminate between
experiences emanating from the lower soul, from God, from Satan and from
the angels. One dependent on an impure source for their existence was
always a victim of evil influences; it was, therefore, a
sûfî's duty to foster a balanced detachment from the
material world and to constantly adhere to outer proper moral conduct in
order to fulfill the requirements of the Suhrawardîyya
ta°awwuf.
Shaikh al-Suhrawardî on Prayers:
As a leading scholar and religious-political authority of his time,
al-Suhrawardî took a firm position on not missing any of the
daily ritualistic prayers. On the subject of prayers he was adamant
about following the Prophet's customs as strictly as possible and not
being negligent about prayers like other sûfî orders. He
points to a Prophet's saying that refers to God calling prayers the
"pillars of the religion."[11] Al-Suhrawardî was concerned
about the behavior of sûfîs reflecting a complete
adherence to example of the Prophet. He stated that "God has prescribed
five obligatory prayers and the holy Prophet (s) stated that God claimed
that prayers are the pillars of the religion, who ever neglects prayers
becomes part of the unbelievers. With prayer, one encounters a binding
testimony. One of the parts to prayer is that testimony comes with
prayer."[12] He continues to
explain that "A hadîth reports that when a seeker of truth
prepares to do prayers, then almighty God places a veil over the seeker,
and with personal greetings God places angels on the shoulders who also
simultaneously pray with the believer."[13]
For al-Suhrawardî, prayers are an important dimension for a
spiritual seeker who wishes to see and experience God's disclosure.
Prayers are not just ritualistic performances ordered by the rules of
sharî'â, but should be understood as an integral
component to tașawwuf. Under the subheading 'The Excellence
of Prayers' the shaikh uses a Prophet's saying that refers to the power
of prayer that opens the heart to experience a type of humility that is
tied to the experiences of heaven. In this quote, al-Suhrawardî
brings this spiritual experience and prayer together as two dependent
entities:
"It is the tradition of Shaikh 'Abdallâh ibn
'Abbâs (r) that the Prophet (s) reported that almighty God
created heaven and there are unique things that exist in it. It is a
place where the eyes have not seen things, and the ears have not heard
things, and nor has any person's heart ever experienced [it]. And God
tells us in the holy Qur'ân "The believers that will
succeed are those who are humble in their prayers." [14]
For al-Suhrawardî, one of the most important features to
prayer is for the sûfî heart to grow in humility and for
the disciple to realize the transformations that are being experienced.
Hadîths used in Sufi texts aim at highlighting the
transcendental experience in prayer and attempt to inspire spiritual
awakenings similar to that of the Prophet. Al-Suhrawardî's use of
hadîths in the prayer section connects one's prayer with
the Prophet's spiritual journey, and locates oneself in a relationship
with the Prophet. The relationship between the sûfî and
the Prophet is of remembrance and celebration, but prayers ultimately
bring the sûfî to the divine. Al-Suhrawardî
stated:
"Prayers are a means of establishing a relationship between the Divine
and the believers. Therefore it is necessary for the believer to
practice the greatest humility in prayer and whenever God hears you
pray, it is the humblest prayers that appeal to Him. Praying with
humility will lead to victory."[15]
Prayers regarding Sûrâ al-Fâtiha:
Shaikh al-Suhrawardî's discussion on particular
sûrâs from the Qur'an is continuous with
traditional sûfî thought that certain chapters and verses
of the Qur'ân have more 'spiritual power' than others.[16] His exegesis begins with
sûrâ al-fâtiha, the first chapter in the
Qur'ân, after he cites the well-known saying of the Prophet that
it was his favorite sûrâ in the
Qur'ân. Shaikh al-Suhrawardî's interpretation of
this chapter gives him extended legitimacy to build upon his expertise
in hadîth studies. Even in this area of Qur'ânic
hermeneutics, he draws on the hadîths of the Prophet to
make connections of the spiritual experience, and the Qur'ân and
the inclusion of the Prophet's sayings. While it reinforces his
scholarly authority in Sufism and in the legal-minded religious class;
more importantly, the al-Suhrawardî is bringing the
Qur'ânic revelation recited by the Prophet as a part of the
tașawwuf spiritual experience. Shaikh al-Suhrawardî's
interpretation of sûrâ al-fâtiha is the
following:
"God gave believers a special favor with the revelation of
sûrâ al-fâtiha. With this
sûrâ one's prayers are acted upon by God as quickly
as possible and God has taught His believers the way to pray.
sûrâ al-fâtiha is recited from morning to
night because it is so important that it was revealed to the holy
Prophet (s) on two separate occasions. One time it was revealed in Mecca
and another time it was revealed in the holy city of Medina. If this
sûrâ is recited at different times, only then you
can begin to understand its deeper meanings. If you were to repeatedly
recite sûrâ al-fâtiha a thousand times then
you will learn a new meaning each time." [17]
Shaikh al-Suhrawardî applies the explanation of Shaikh
Abû Hurâyra, who believed this chapter was an example of
the way the Divine keeps a dialogue with His creation. From Abû
Hurâyra's analysis, the relationship between the Creator and the
believer reaches a critical moment when the believer praises God and
calls for his humble guidance. Shaikh al-Suhrawardî's decision
to cite Abû Hurâyra's discussion of the recitation of
sûrâ al-fâtiha again reinforces the rules of
sûfî spiritual conduct and the need to follow the rules of
the Suhrawardîyya order as closely as possible.
"Shaikh Abû Hurayra's tradition [is] that the
Prophet (s) reported that prayer divides the believer in between two
parts. That is when the believer recites 'bismillâh
urahmân wa rahîm' (In the name of God, the Most
Merciful and the Most Compassionate) then God replies 'my servant has
called upon me.' When the believer continues to recite
'alhamdulilâh rabil'alamîn' (All Praise is due to
the Master of the Worlds) then God responds by stating that my believer
has praised me. When the believer recites 'arahmân wa
rahim' (The Compassionate and Merciful) then God states that my
believer has commended me. As the believer continues to recite 'malik
yaumadîn' (The Owner of the Day of Judgement) then God
replies and states that my believer has placed the responsibilities of
all work onto me. Then the believer recites 'iyâka na'budo wa
iyâka nasta'ên' (To you alone we worship and to you alone
we ask for guidance) then God states that there is room in the believer
for me. As the believer states 'adanas sirâtûl
mustaqîm sirâtûl lazinain'umta 'alaihim gharil
maghdube 'alaihim wa la dhâlîn' (Show us the straight
path, the path that leads to you, and not like those who've gone astray
and caused you anger) God states that all of this is for my believer and
whatever he desires it will be granted."[18]
Al-Suhrawardî quotes this hadîth not only to
point out to his audience that there is a constant dialogue between the
divine and human beings, but also that recitation of the Qur'ân
brings about a real response from its author. By using
sûrâ al-fâtiha as the forum for this
dialogue he creates a channel for the believer and links their personal
prayers with divine communication. This is another example of
al-Suhrawardî functioning as an authoritative sûfî
shaikh guiding his disciples toward God by remembering the Prophet.
According to al-Suhrawardî, the internal and external worlds
need structure and this ability to create structure in an chaotic world
depends on the intellectual abilities to comprehend their Sufism. One
possible reason why al-Suhrawardî was interested in having his
disciples actively practice and strengthen their reasoning ('aql)
in their Sufi path is because the development of the mind was connected
to spiritual awareness. Under the subject, "The Excellence of
Reasoning," al-Suhrawardî stressed the benefits of being
politically active with the state, and it's clear that he desired his
disciples to be intellectually capable for those challenges. One main
reason to emphasize the importance of reasoning in Suhrawardî
Sufism is to distinguish his order from the world-rejecting and
antinomian sûfî orders. Shaikh al-Suhrawardî
stated the following on the subject of reasoning:
"Reasoning ('aql) is the job of language. The power to think is
reflected in the following hadîth: First God made the human
mind so that his creation could think. The ability to use 'aql is
related to worship, as another hadîth reports that with
'aql you can know me and also praise me."[19]
Al-Suhrawardî believed that reasoning was one of the most
important elements for progress in tașawwuf spirituality. His
text contains a plethora of examples from the life of the Prophet on
this subject that legitimized his argument for reasoning while
connecting reasoning with the sunnâ of the Prophet. For
example he stated, "The holy Prophet (s) once said the truth is that
almighty God gave his servants 'aql piece by piece. They learn to
increase their knowledge, practice pure prayers and try to do proper
fasting, but there is a great difference in their 'aql."[20] One other
hadîth used to validate the important place of reasoning
in tașawwuf practice is clear in the following statement:
"One time Ayesha (r) asked the Prophet (s) what is the best
way for people to evaluate themselves? The Prophet (s) replied that
'aql is the best means to evaluate oneself. She pursued further
and asked are people not in control of their actions? The Prophet (s)
responded that obedience to almighty God involves 'aql, and with
more 'aql involved, then people will apply more righteous
actions. They will benefit as their righteous actions increase."[21]
Al-Suhrawardî's use of the Prophet's saying in the subject of
reasoning is another example of using the highest authority in
spirituality, that is the Prophet. This process of linking
Suhrawardîyya Sufism with the Prophet's life was intended to
demonstrate the ways his sûfî order mirrored and
celebrated the Prophet. Reasoning for al-Suhrawardî went beyond
understanding the intricacies of the Qur'ân and sayings of the
Prophet for legalistic purposes. Rather, reasoning for
al-Suhrawardî was more about raising the level of reverence for
the Prophet: there was a desire to capture the Prophet's spiritual
encounter, to embody his spiritual achievements. For
al-Suhrawardî, reasoning of the law, the Qur'ân,
hadiths, and customs of the Prophet were all meant as a means for
Suhrawardîyya sûfîs to remember, reenact,
reconnect, and relive the spiritual life of the Prophet.
[1] Ibn 'Arabî's
reference to circumambulation is to connect to the pilgrimage rites in
Mecca where pilgrims come at a pay tribute to the legacy of Prophet
Abraham. It is understood that the Ka'ba was built by Abraham and his
son Isma'il after the last test of sacrifice commanded by God. Pilgrims
pray at the Ka'ba as well circumambulate the structure as the Prophet
Muhammad practiced it.
[2] For more see David
Emmanuel Singh "The Possibility of Having Knowledge of al-wujûd
al-mahd Sheer Being According to Ibn Arabi's Kitâb al-jalal
wa-al-jamal" in Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 10 (1999):
295-306.
[3] For more on wahdat
al-wajûd see William Chittick, The Sufi Path of Knowledge:
Ibn 'Arabî's Metaphysics of Imaginations (Albany: SUNY Press,
1989) and Imaginal Worlds: Ibn 'Arabî and the Problem of
Religious Diversity (Albany: SUNY Press, 1994); Michel Chodkiewicz,
An Ocean Without Shore: Ibn 'Arabî, the Book, and the Law
(Albany: SUNY Press, 1984) and, Stephen Hirtenstein, The Unlimited
Mercifier (London: Anqa Publishers, 1999).
[4] See Michel Chodkiewicz,
Seal of the Saints: Prophethood and Sainthood in the doctrine of Ibn
'Arabî, trans., by Liadain Sherrard (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1993).
[5] Pablo Benito and Stephen
Hirtenstein, The Daily Prayers of Ibn 'Arabî (London: Anqa
Publishing, 2000), 10-12.
[6] Benito, 22.
[7] 'Awârif
al-Ma'ârif has been translated by some as "Knowledge of the
Gnostics" or "Manual of the Dervishes" or "The Gifts of the Spiritual
Perceptions" but I believe all of those translations bring confusion to
the theology of the Suhrawardîyya order and to the intellectual
dimensions of shaikh al-Suhrawardî's sufism. 'Abû Hafs
'Umar al-Suhrawardî, 'Awârif al-Ma'ârif,
(Cairo: Maktabat al-Kaherah, 1973). Hereafter cited as AM.
[8] For a discussion on
shaikh al-Suhrawardî's contribution see, 'Abû Bakr
Muhammad al-Kâlâbadhî, Kitâb al-ta'arruf
li-madhab ahl al-tașawwuf, (Cairo: Maktabat al-Khanjî,
1934); Muhammad Mândawî Ghawthî, Gulzar-i
abrâr. Urdu translation by Fal Aḥmad Jêwarî,
Adhkâr-i abrâr, Urdû tarjuma-yi gulzâr-i
abrâr [1808], reprinted (Lahore: Islamic Book Foundation,
1975); Abu Nasr Tahir Khanaqahi, Guzida dar Tașawwuf wa
Akhlâq, edited by Iraj Afsar. (Tehran, 1968).
[9] Saiyid Abbas Rizvi,
The History of Sufism in India (Delhi: Manhoram Manohol
Publishers, 1979), 92-93.
[10] AM, 266-69.
[11] AM, 274.
[12] When
al-Suhrawardî quoted from the Qur'ân he usually
took sections of a verse to support his particular idea and supplied the
citation. Whenever he made a reference to the Prophet he followed the
sunnâ by supplying the proper benediction of
salâ allâhu 'alaihim wa salam, and with companions
to the Prophet, members of the Prophet's family, Shî'î
Imâms, and eminent sûfî shaikhs he applied
raḥmat allâh alahi.
[13] AM, 275.
[14] AM, 64.
[15] AM, 273.
[16] See, A.J. Wesinck,
Concordance et indices de la tradition musulmane. 8 volumes,
(Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1936-1971); Frederick Denny, "Exegesis and
Recitation: Their Development as Classical Forms of Qur'ânic
Piety" in Transitions and Transformations in the History of
Religions. Essays in Honor of Joseph M. Kitagawa, edited by Frank
Reynolds and Theodore M. Ludwig, (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1980), pp.
91-123; and, Abu'l-Qasim 'Abdulkarim al-Qushayri, Al-risâla
al-qusharyrîyyâ fî 'ilm al-tașawwuf, 2
volumes, edited by 'Abdulhalim Muhmud and Mahmud b. Ash-Sharif, (Cairo:
Matba't al-Hassan, 1974).
[17] AM, 272.
[18] AM, 272-273.
[19] AM, 411.
[20] AM, 412.
[21] AM, 412.
© 2003, Society for Scriptural
Reasoning
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